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Questions of economic, technological, medical, or biological coop- education, art, and literature. This is 'culture in the narrow sense'; I eration have too often been considered as merely technical.
One of the sometimes call it 'culture one'. Culture as mental software, however, reasons why so many solutions do not work or cannot be implemented is corresponds to a much broader use of the word which is common among because differences in thinking among the partners have been ignored.
Social or cultural anthropology is the science of human societies, in The objective of this book is to help in dealing with the differences in particular although not only traditional or 'primitive' ones.
In social thinking, feeling, and acting of people around the globe. It will show that anthropology, 'culture' is a catchword for all those patterns of thinking, although the variety in people's minds is enormous, there is a structure in feeling, and acting referred to in the previous paragraphs. Not only those this variety which can serve as a basis for mutual understanding. Politicians and journalists sometimes potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime.
Much of it has confuse culture two and culture one without being aware of it: the adap- been acquired in early childhood, because at that time a person is most tation problems of immigrants to their new host country are discussed in susceptible to learning and assimilating.
As soon as certain patterns of terms of promoting folk dance groups. But culture two deals with much thinking, feeling and acting have established themselves within a person's more fundamental human processes than culture one; it deals with the things mind, s he must unlearn these before being able to learn something that hurt. Culture two is always a collective phenomenon, because it is at least partly Using the analogy of the way in which computers are programmed, this book shared with people who live or lived within the same social environment, will call such patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting mental programs, or, as which is where it was learned.
It is the collective programming of the mind the sub-title goes: 'software of the mind'. This does not mean, of course, that which distinguishes the members of one group or category1 of people from people are programmed the way computers are. A person's behavior is only another? It derives from one's social environment, destructive, or unexpected.
The 'software of the mind' this book is about not from one's genes. Culture should be distinguished from human nature only indicates what reactions are likely and understandable, given one's on one side, and from an individual's personality on the other see Fig.
The programming scientists. The European Australian aborigine, have in common: it represents the universal level in watchmaker from the quote at the beginning of this chapter came from a one's mental software.
It is inherited with one's genes; within the computer country and a social class in which polite behavior is still at a premium today. The basic psychological functioning. The human ability to feel fear, anger, love, American garage owner, who worked himself up from the slums, acquired joy, sadness, the need to associate with others, to play and exercise oneself, quite different mental programs. Mental programs vary as much as the social the facility to observe the environment and to talk about it with other environments in which they were acquired.
However, what one A customary term for such mental software is culture. Studying differ- ences in culture among groups and societies presupposes a position of cultural relativism.
However, every culture can and should apply such judgment to its own activities, because its members are actors as well as observers. It does call for suspending judgment when dealing with groups or Fig. One should think twice before applying the norms of one person, group or society to another.
Information about the nature of the cultural differences between societies, their roots, and their suggests, because certain aspects of it are shared with parts of the animal consequences should precede judgment and action. If s he is professionally involved human being.
It is based upon traits which are partly inherited with the in the other society , for example as an expatriate manager or development individual's unique set of genes and partly learned. In colonial modified by the influence of collective programming culture as well as days, foreigners often wielded absolute power in other societies and they unique personal experiences.
In these postcolonial days, foreigners who want to change something in another society will have to negotiate their Cultural traits have often been attributed to heredity, because philosophers interventions. Again, negotiation is more likely to succeed when the parties and other scholars in the past did not know how to explain otherwise the concerned understand the reasons for the differences in viewpoints.
They underestimated the impact of learning from previous generations and of teaching to a future generation what one has learned oneself. The role of Symbols, heroes, rituals, and values heredity is exaggerated in the pseudo-theories of race, which have been Cultural differences manifest themselves in several ways. From the many responsible, among other things, for the Holocaust organized by the Nazis terms used to describe manifestations of culture the following four together during the Second World War.
Racial and ethnic strife is often justified by cover the total concept rather neatly: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. In unfounded arguments of cultural superiority and inferiority. The words more in intelligence than whites. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to in a language or jargon belong to this category, as do dress, hairstyles, Coca- find tests that are culture free.
This means that they reflect only ability, not Cola, flags, and status symbols. New symbols are easily developed and old the differences in, for example, social opportunity. There is little doubt that, ones disappear: symbols from one cultural group are regularly copied by on average, blacks in the USA and other minority and even majority groups others. This is why symbols have been put into the outer, most superficial in other countries have fewer opportunities than whites.
Bommel Mr Bumble in the Netherlands can serve as cultural heroes. In this age of television, outward appearances have become more important in the choice of heroes than they were before. Rituals are collective activities, technically superfluous in reaching desired ends, but which, within a culture, are considered as socially essential: they are therefore carried out for their own sake. Ways of greeting and paying respect to others, social and religious ceremonies are examples.
Business and political meetings organized for seemingly rational reasons often serve mainly ritual purposes, like allowing the leaders to assert themselves. As such, they are visible to an outside observer; their cultural meaning, however, is invisible and lies precisely and only in the way these not always act as they have scored on the questionnaire. Still the question- practices are interpreted by the insiders.
For example, suppose a The core of culture according to Fig. Values are question asks for one's preference for time off from work versus more pay. Values are An individual employee who states s he prefers time off may in fact choose feelings with an arrow to it: they have a plus and a minus side. They deal with: the money if presented with the actual choice, but if in group A more people claim preferring time off than in group B, this does indicate a cultural evil vs.
Questions about irrational vs. In the abstract, everybody is in Values are among the first things children learn—not consciously, but favor of virtue and opposed to sin, and answers about the desirable express implicitly. Development psychologists believe that by the age of 10, most people's views about what represents virtue and what corresponds to sin. Because they were acquired so early in our consider important, what we want for ourselves, including our less virtuous lives, many values remain unconscious to those who hold them.
Therefore desires. The desirable bears only a faint resemblance to actual behavior, but they cannot be discussed, nor can they be directly observed by outsiders. For systematic research on values, inferring them from people's actions is What distinguishes the desirable from the desired is the nature of the norms cumbersome and ambiguous.
Various paper-and-pencil questionnaires involved. Norms are the standards for values that exist within a group or have been developed which ask for people's preferences among alterna- category of people. The mental programs within people make it difficult to anticipate their behavior desirable relates more to ideology, the desired to practical matters. Interpretations of value studies which neglect the difference between the National culture differences desirable and the desired may lead to paradoxical results.
A case in which Human societies have existed for at least 10 years, possibly much longer. Employees in different countries were hunter-gatherers. After many thousands of years, some of them settled asked for their agreement or disagreement with the statement 'Employees in down as farmers. Gradually some farming communities grew into larger industry should participate more in the decisions made by management'. In another question people were like Mexico City with over 25 million inhabitants. This is a statement about the Different human societies have followed this development to different desired.
A comparison between the answers to these two questions revealed extents, so that hunter-gatherers survive even today according to some, the that employees in countries where the manager who consults was less modern urban yuppy has reverted to a hunting-gathering state. As the popular, agreed more with the general statement that employees should world became more and more populated, an amazing variety of answers was paiticipate more, and vice versa; maybe the ideology served as a compen- found to the basic question of how people can live together and form some sation for the day-to-day relationship with the boss Hofstede, , p.
In the fertile areas of the world large empires had already been built several thousand years ago, usually because the rulers of one part succeeded in I ,iiyt-rs of culture conquering other parts. The oldest empire in existence within living memory A s almost everyone belongs to a number of different groups and categories is China. Although it had not always been unified, the Chinese empire dl pi-ople at the same time, people unavoidably carry several layers of possessed a continuous history of about years.
Other empires disinte- i i i c i i I , i l programming within themselves, corresponding to different levels of grated: in the eastern Mediterranean and southwestern part of Asia empires i i i l i u u ".
Earlier, there were states, but not everybody belonged to one of Additions to this list are easy to make. The mental programs from these these or identified with one. The nation system was only introduced various levels are not necessarily in harmony. In modern society they are worldwide in the mid-twentieth century.
It followed the colonial system often partly conflicting: for example, religious values may conflict with which had developed during the preceding three centuries. In this colonial generation values; gender values with organizational practices.
The borders between the ex-colonial today populate one single world and we either survive or perish together. So nations still reflect the colonial legacy. In Africa, particularly, national it makes practical sense to focus on cultural factors separating or uniting borders correspond more to the logic of the colonial powers than to the nations.
Nations, therefore, should not be equated to societies. Historically, societies Dimensions of national cultures are organically developed forms of social organization, and the concept of a In the first half of the twentieth century, social anthropology has developed common culture applies strictly speaking, more to societies than to nations. American anthropologists, in particular they consist of clearly different groups and even if they contain less Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead , played an integrated minorities.
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